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(5) United States’ Attitude Having Influence on Overall Situation

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After the war, in addition to the Soviet occupation of Northeast China, the attitude of the United States also affected China’s political situation. The US policy towards China before and after the end of the war showed two attitudes: in February 1945, it sacrificed China’s sovereignty and offered benefits to the Soviet Union at the Yalta Conference in hope to reduce the casualties of the US forces in the war against Japan; after the war, it sent important personnel to China to promote peace talks between the Kuomintang of China (KMT, 中國國民黨) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP, 中國共產黨) to prevent the situation in China from deteriorating but also supported the KMT troops in terms of military expenditure and equipment.

Although the United States had supported the Nationalist Government of the Republic of China since the outbreak of the Pacific War in December 1941, some US officials as observed from the wartime showed dissatisfaction with the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek (蔣介石). The US attitude towards the Nationalist Government changed when Harry S. Truman succeeded Franklin D. Roosevelt as US President since April 1945. Before and after the KMT-CCP conflict, the military embargo once imposed by the United States forced the Nationalist Government to buy armaments from American private enterprises. In the US presidential election in November 1948, Chiang’s government supported Thomas E. Dewey, a Republican. Unexpectedly, Truman of the Democratic Party won the election as a dark horse. After that, Truman became even more dissatisfied with Chiang, exacerbating the heavy defeats of the Nationalist Government in the civil war.

Why did some important US military and political figures have a bad relationship with Chiang Kai-shek’s government during and after the war?

See answer below.

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Joseph W. Stilwell, the then Commander of the US military in China, Deputy Commander of the Southeast Asia War Zone, and Chief-of-Staff to the China War Zone of the Allied forces enjoying Christmas breakfast on the front line of Myanmar on 25 December 1943. Although the United States and China were allies during the Pacific War, Stilwell was on bad terms with Chiang Kai-shek. Chiang was particularly dissatisfied with Stilwell’s favour for the CCP.

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In July 1944, the United States sent a military observation team to Yan’an (延安) to seek cooperation with the CCP. Stilwell was a huge supporter of the visit. The photo shows Zhu De (朱德, left) and Mao Zedong (毛澤東, right) receiving the US representatives.

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The US Navy officers reading the news of President Roosevelt’s death. Truman, the successor of Roosevelt who passed away on 12 April 1945, changed the attitude towards the Nationalist Government.

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Patrick J. Hurley (left), the US Ambassador to China from 1944 to 1945, and George C. Marshall (right), the Special Envoy to China sent by the US President Truman from the late 1945 to the early 1947 spared no effort in mediating the KMT-CCP conflict.

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John L. Stuart, the US Ambassador to China during the Chinese Civil War, and the main entrance of the US Embassy in Nanjing (南京). Stuart’s terms of office spanned the whole Chinese Civil War. He tried his best to promote the cooperation and peace building between the KMT and CCP, but his efforts, without the actual support from the US government, were not accepted by the two Chinese parties.

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Stuart, the US Ambassador to the Republic of China from July 1946 to November 1952 cum first President of Yenching University (燕京大學), made an important contribution to modern Chinese education. Deeply attached to China, he had always wished to be buried in China after his death. On 18 November 2008, Stuart’s ashes were officially transferred and buried in Anxian Yuan (安賢園), Banshan (半山), Hangzhou (杭州).

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With the coordination of the United States, the Executive Headquarters, an organisation formed by representatives of the Nationalist Government, the CCP, and the US government for mediating the KMT-CCP military conflicts was established in Beiping (北平, now Beijing﹝北京﹞) in early December 1945. However, the organisation failed to prevent the civil war. The photos show the US personnel posing for photos at the main entrance and in the office of the Executive Headquarters Peiping.

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After the war, the corruption within the Nationalist Government caused widespread public dissatisfaction. The United States was accused of supporting the Nationalist Government, coupled with the misconduct of some US troops in China, provoking continuous anti-US demonstrations in China. These increasingly discouraged some US politicians from participating China’s affairs. Left: Shanghai (上海) students posting an English slogan “U.S. Made Bomb Are Now Killing Chinese” on a train during an anti-US demonstration in July 1946. Right: triggered by the news that a US soldier raped a female student from Peking University (北京大學), anti-US movements led by students broke out in various big cities in December 1946.

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As the situation in China deteriorated, the US Truman Administration was also dissatisfied with the Nationalist Government. It thus reduced its support for the Nationalist Government and withdrew some of its personnel in China. The photos show some US personnel boarding the ship to leave China in 1947.

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The photo shows Truman of the Democratic Party holding up the pro-Republican Chicago Daily Tribune printed with an erroneous headline “Dewey Defeats Truman” due to a premature release to celebrate his victory after winning the presidential election on 4 November 1948. Truman’s re-election served as a big blow to Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist Government.

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Before the US presidential election on 2 November 1948, the public generally believed that the Republican Dewey would win. Hoping that Truman, who was not too friendly to the Nationalist Government, would lose and Dewey would win so that he could obtain enormous assistance from the United States, Chiang Kai-shek spent a generous funding to support Dewey to run for the presidency. Much to everyone’s surprise, Truman was elected. After Truman was re-elected, he was even more dissatisfied with Chiang and the Nationalist Government.

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Left: the “General of Flying Tigers” Claire L. Chennault, who had a good relationship with the Nationalist Government, submitting a proposal to the Foreign Affairs Committee of the United States House of Representatives in 1948. The proposal opposed the Truman Administration’s cessation of aid to the Republic of China but with little effect. Right: Soong Mei-ling (宋美齡, right), Chiang Kai-shek’s wife, leaving after a talk with the US President Truman in December 1948. Soong visited the United States in the hope of seeking more assistance, but she was given the cold shoulder. In the late 1948, the United States adopted a negative attitude towards Chiang, exacerbating the situation of the Nationalist Government that suffered repeated defeats in the civil war.

Why did some important US military and political figures have a bad relationship with Chiang Kai-shek’s government during and after the war?

The first person to mention is Stilwell, a four-star general of the US Army stationed in China for nearly three years during World War II, serving as the Commander of the US military in China, Deputy Commander of the Southeast Asia War Zone, and Chief-of-Staff to the China War Zone of the Allied forces. Stilwell and Chiang Kai-shek had many differences. For example, being unsure if the game was in hand for attacking Myanmar, Chiang remained impervious to Stilwell’s repeated urge to action, but kept asking the United States for more assistance. Stilwell believed that Chiang was passive in resisting Japan and doubted his leadership. In addition, Stilwell, disgusted with the corruption within the KMT, once suggested that the United States should completely terminate its assistance to the Nationalist Government. At the same time, Stilwell’s favour for the CCP much dissatisfied Chiang. Finally, Stilwell was transferred to another position in October 1944 because of his break with Chiang.

Stilwell was a confidant of Marshall, a core member of the Truman Administration. Truman, who succeeded Roosevelt who died in April 1945 as president, continued to carry out the secret agreement of the Yalta Conference and sent Marshall to mediate the KMT-CCP relationship, which much displeased Chiang. In November 1948, the incumbent President Truman from the Democratic Party and Dewey from the Republican Party ran for the presidency. Initially, Dewey enjoyed a lead in opinion polls. Seeing that Dewey had a good chance to win, Chiang pinned his hopes on Dewey and actively supported him. Unexpectedly, Truman won the election. The re-elected Truman showed even more dissatisfaction with Chiang, exacerbating the situation of the Nationalist Government towards the end of the Chinese Civil War.

Source of most photos used in this feature piece: Fotoe, misc. photo sources.