From shunned outcast in the founding days of the People's Republic to a major international player today, China’s reversal of fortune on the global stage has been nothing short of momentous. As China’s relations with the rest of the world evolved through history, its foreign policies inevitably experienced sea changes. What has remained constant through time, however, is its persistence in upholding the basic principles of independence, autonomy and its commitment to peaceful development. In order to truly understand China’s interactions with the world, it is important to distinguish between the “constant” and “variable” aspects of China’s foreign policy.
On May 10, 2019, despite expectations that an agreement would be reached, Sino-U.S. trade talks held in the United States reached stalemate when the United States accused China of backtracking on its commitments. China, in response, debunked the United States’ claims through China Central Television’s Xinwen Lianbo news program and other official media, and retorted with the rare statement that “China is open to negotiation, but will also fight to the end if needed.”
Why did China take such an unequivocal stance?
From a shunned and isolated nation in its founding days to a major player on the world stage, China’s international role has obviously undergone massive change. What underlying principles of its foreign policy have remained constant?
Just as the state of international affairs is ever changing, China’s foreign policy has, inevitably, experienced sea changes over the past 70 years. What has remained constant through time, however, is its persistence in the basic principles of independence and autonomy and its commitment to peaceful development. It is important to distinguish between the “constant” and “variable” aspects of China’s foreign policy in order to truly understand China’s interactions with the world.
Independence, autonomy and China’s first peak period in establishing diplomatic relations
When the People’s Republic of China was newly founded, it had two major tasks. The first was to bolster the nation’s independence, and safeguard both national sovereignty and territorial integrity; the second was to resume production as soon as possible and promote economic development as a remedy for the nation’s impoverished and backward state. The founding leaders were committed to peaceful coexistence with other nations and maintaining world peace. Nevertheless, the Cold War political landscape established by the United States and the Soviet Union left the fledgling nation no choice but to contend with the blockades, isolation and threats imposed by the West from the very beginning.
When the People’s Republic of China was newly founded, it had two major tasks. The first was to bolster the nation’s independence, and safeguard both national sovereignty and territorial integrity; the second was to resume production as soon as possible and promote economic development as a remedy for the nation’s impoverished and backward state. The founding leaders were committed to peaceful coexistence with other nations and maintaining world peace. Nevertheless, the Cold War political landscape established by the United States and the Soviet Union left the fledgling nation no choice but to contend with the blockades, isolation and threats imposed by the West from the very beginning.
This was the basis for the fledgling nation’s resolute rejection of the Western powers’ demand for China to discharge its “international obligations” (so called by the imperialist powers who sought to force China to acknowledge their interests granted by previous unequal treaties). In fact, China spared no effort in eliminating all such privileges. In this vein, Mao Zedong proposed three main diplomatic principles in the nation’s early years.
During this period, China’s diplomatic priority was to develop relations with socialist nations. By supporting each other and collaborating on political, economic and international issues, China and its socialist allies were able to enhance their bilateral relations and strengthen the socialist camp.
It’s worth noting that China followed its principles of independence and autonomy in its interactions with socialist nations. For example, it was customary for countries in the socialist camp at that time to establish diplomatic relations with a country only after the Soviet Union had done so, yet China showed its diplomatic autonomy by extending recognition to Vietnam ahead of the Soviet Union on account of the profound Sino-Vietnam friendship. Also, while ideological differences led to the deterioration of the Sino-Soviet relationship in the1950s, the split was also in part due to a dispute over the ownership of the Sino-Soviet joint flotilla of submarines that were to be built in China, which the Chinese viewed as an attempt to undermine Chinese sovereignty.
The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and China’s second peak period in establishing diplomatic relations
When the Korean War broke out, New China was catapulted to the front lines of a war against the Western nations led by the United States. China also took part in the 1954 Geneva Conference, the new nation’s first multilateral international meeting, at which the issues of Indo-China and Korea were discussed.
Meanwhile, Zhou Enlai (周恩來) proposed the now-famous “Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence” (mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, mutual non-aggression, non-interference in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence). This aimed to promote reconciliation and cooperation between nations and build a broad united front for peace. They were well-received by participating nations. This was in line with China’s position that it “shall unite with all peace-loving and freedom-loving countries and peoples throughout the world to defend lasting world peace,” as stated in the Common Program of The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (中國人民政治協商會議共同綱領). It is also explicitly emphasized in China’s first Constitution, enacted in 1954, that “in international affairs our firm and consistence policy is to strive for the noble cause of world peace and the progress of humanity.” Today, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence have become widely accepted as basic norms that govern contemporary international relations.
The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence were brought up at the Asian-African Conference held in Bandung in 1955, and contributed to world peace by helping to build solidarity among the participating nations. “Seek common ground while shelving differences,” the policy proposed by Zhou Enlai, has helped dispel the participating nations’ distrust and misgivings about China. China’s strong advocacy of and commitment to the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and its firm stand on the side of oppressed nations made a powerful impression on Afro-Asian and Latin-American countries attending the meeting, so much so that many sought to establish diplomatic relations with China afterwards. This greatly expanded China’s diplomatic reach.
This occurred over the years between the late 1950s and the end of the 1960s, coinciding with the rise in nationalist independence movements in Asia, Latin America and Africa. China established diplomatic relations with many of these countries, making the era its second peak period in establishing diplomatic relations. By 1969, China had established new diplomatic relations with 50 countries. Excluding France, all were Afro-Asian and Latin-American nations.
From “keeping a low profile” to the concept of “a community of shared future for mankind”
In the early 1980s, Deng Xiaoping made an apt observation about the state of the world at that time, pointing out that “there are only two major issues in the world, that is, global issues with strategic importance. One is peace, and the other is the economy, or development.” This would become the guiding principle of China’s foreign policy in the years to follow.
To promote economic development, opening up to the world became China’s long-term national policy. Interactions and visits of all kinds between China and other nations grew correspondingly, and China began its rapid assimilation into the international community. As a relatively poor and backward nation with limited experience in dealing with Western countries, China started out as a near-negligible player in the international arena whose position was marginal at best. Proceeding with both caution and a zeal for learning, China soon settled in and began seeking opportunities for collaboration.
After the fall of the Berlin Wall, the world order was dramatically reconfigured. China itself had undergone political disturbance in 1989, and was subject to pressure and sanctions from the West. In view of the complex global situation, Deng Xiaoping issued new guiding principles for China’s foreign affairs, which included “keeping cool-headed to observe, standing firmly, being composed to make reactions, keeping a low profile, never trying to take the lead, and taking a proactive role when feasible.” At the same time, China continued to work towards building a peaceful, international environment conducive to the processes of modernization, reform and opening-up.
Under these new guiding principles, China actively pursued multi-faceted diplomacy. Recognizing the inevitability of economic globalization, in the 1990s, China’s leadership implemented a key strategic policy of “going global” (走出去) which entailed active participation in the global economic system. China’s accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in late 2001 was a sign of its successful assimilation into the international community.
