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Splendid
Chi Culture
The Chinese recommendatory system refers to the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) system of recruiting talent from all levels of society. The word “chaju” means “to inspect and recommend.” The imperial court assigned various topics according to need, and appointed specialists in those fields as chief examiners. The examiners would then recommend talented individuals in accordance with the court regulations. After the court verified the men’s qualifications, they would either be employed or promoted.
The chaju system was implemented in the first year of the Yuanguang reign period (134 BCE) of Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty (r. 141–87 BCE). Dong Zhongshu (179–104 BCE), a great thinker, petitioned Emperor Wu recommending a new method to select talented men. The method stipulated that each commandery and region must nominate a xiaolian (filial and incorrupt person) to the central government. Emperor Wu accepted his suggestion, and announced specific quotas and category requirements. Thereafter, the chaju system became the main method of selecting officials in the Han dynasty. In the early Han, both the selecting official and the selected person took joint responsibility for the appropriateness of the appointment.
Examination was an important part of the chaju system. After the nominees passed the examination, the court would then appoint them to positions based on their abilities. This ensured that the selection criteria would be thoroughly implemented, and that those men with real talent would be selected. The system guaranteed fair competition, and gave lower level officials an opportunity to enter state administration. With the continuous development and perfection of the examination system, it eventually became the “recruitment by examination system,” an important method of recruitment in China.
Under the chaju system, officials were selected and appointed by recommendation. There was also another system called shishou, or “probationary”, a type of internship. The imperial court stipulated that the recommended talent could serve in the appointed position on a probationary basis for one year; if the person was judged competent, he would be formally appointed to the post. However, if he was not up to the task, he would be dismissed and replaced. Xiaolian (filial and incorrupt) was the most important category in the recommendation procedure. After someone was nominated under this category, he would normally serve as court gentleman (an attendant to the emperor). If, after a year-long probation, he was still qualified, he would then be assigned a post as a minister, attendant censor, or district magistrate.
After the recommendatory system was established, many criteria were chosen to evaluate the candidate; the selection covered a wide range, and the implementation was strict. Many outstanding talents were selected following this method; examples are Chao Cuo (200–154 BCE), Dongfang Shuo (fl. 140–130 BCE), Dong Jun (12 BCE–63 CE), and Zuo Xiong (d. 138). Emperor Wu was always in search of talented men and appointed them to important positions. However, he did not conform to any one pattern when choosing them; therefore, many scholars with a breadth of vision emerged. As for family background, there were few restrictions during Emperor Wu’s reign. Officials and civilians could be recommended as long as they were both talented and virtuous. A number of officials recommended through this system became eminent, for example, Zhu Maichen (ca. d. 115 BCE) and Ren An (124–202 BCE).
The criteria used to evaluate talent continuously increased from the original few. Most of the added criteria were in specialized categories, which were established based on the needs for people with professional skill. The criteria for nominating talented people were determined by the emperor alone, and those used for selecting candidates were classified into two major categories based on the time of the year: regular categories (annually) and specialized categories. The annual categories were: xiaolian (filial and incorrupt), maocai or xiucai (cultivated talent), chalian or lianli (investigating incorruptness), and guanglu sixing (splendid happiness of four conducts). Among the categories, xiaolian was the most important. These categories could be further divided: the more frequently selected and ordinary, that is occasionally selected. Among all the specialized categories, the xianliang fangzheng (straightforward and upright) was the most important one. During the reign of Emperor Wen (202–157 BCE), he requested the recommendation of straightforward and upright men; Emperor Wu, during his reign, requested the recommendation of the filial and uncorrupted. These were landmark events in the history of the recommendary system.
Depending on the imperial court’s needs, many different categories could be used to select candidates. If the focus was on “virtue,” then there were the four categories of xiaolian, xiaolian fangzheng, zhixiao (utmost filial), and dunhou (honest and sincere). There were examinations in law to find those with the best understanding of the topic. If the court was focused on the abilities of the potential nominees, there were categories of youyi (outstanding), zhiju (able to govern the most difficult commanderies or districts), people who were vigorous and valiant and knew military strategy, people who understood yin-yang and omens, and people who had attained the Way. However, among all the categories, virtue ranked first, and Ruism in scholarship was given priority.
In the early years of the Western Han dynasty (early third–late second centuries), recommendation did not have age limits. There was only one case that an age-limit was invoked and that was in the first year of the Jianyuan era (140 BCE) of Emperor Wu’s reign. Prime minister Gongsun Hong (200–121 BCE) had his title of boshi (erudite) removed because of his advanced years. Although this was perhaps an isolated case, it does show that the central government also took the age of the recommended candidates into consideration.