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Both the Self-strengthening Movement and the Hundred Days’ Reform were orchestrated by Qing officials. Although the former lasted far longer than the latter, both ultimately failed. What are the similarities and differences in the causes of failure of the two movements? |
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See answer below. |
During the Hundred Days’ Reform period, Cixi pretended to let Emperor Guangxu take charge of state affairs, while she retired to the Summer Palace where she claimed she would be “nourished by living in harmony with nature.” In fact, she never gave up real power. At first, she had acquiesced to the reform and took a wait-and-see approach. As the reform progressed, however, she became convinced the reform only intended to preserve China but not the Qing rule, and began to oppose it. At the same time, measures to abolish sinecures and streamline the bureaucracy threatened vested interests. Aggrieved stakeholders began to call for Cixi’s involvement. This led to the formation of an anti-reform Empress’s Faction whose power greatly dwarfed that of Emperor Guangxu’s supporters.
Following the Wuxu Coup, Cixi considered dethroning Emperor Guangxu. Not long after the coup, there were rumours that the emperor was at death’s door or had already died. However, the populace and the foreign community, who were mostly sympathetic to Emperor Guangxu and the Reformist Camp, was skeptical. Under foreign pressure, the imperial court was forced to let a French physician examine the emperor in the palace. Once it was certain that his life was not in peril, the foreign nations made it clear that they would not acknowledge any new emperor. Liu Kunyi (劉坤一), the Viceroy of Liang Jiang (兩江總督) who was respected both in China and abroad, urged Cixi to be wary of the consequence of dethroning Emperor Guangxu: “The people are seriously concerned, and we are being watched by powerful neighbours. It (the dethronement of Emperor Guangxu) would be a convenient pretext for war.” In the end, Cixi was forced to abandon her plan.
Emperor Guangxu was deeply in love with Concubine Zhen, but the two were forever separated after the Wuxu Coup. When the Eight-Nation Alliance (八國聯軍) invaded Beijing in 1900, Cixi took Emperor Guangxu with her as she fled Beijing. Prior to her departure, she ordered a eunuch to kill Concubine Zhen by throwing her into a well. The well, now called the Well of Concubine Zhen, is accessible to visitors who wish to pay tributes to the tragic concubine.
In 1908, Cixi became terminally ill. Just one day before her death, Emperor Guangxu passed away, which was too much of a coincidence. However, given the secretive nature of palace life, for a long time there was no conclusive evidence to support the claim of foul play. Thus, most historians attributed his death to illness, as supported by official documents and palace records. It was not until 2008, 110 years after the Wuxu Coup, that the government conducted modern forensic tests to finally reveal the cause of Emperor Guangxu’s death as arsenic poisoning. The one who ordered the deed, however, remains unproven.
Tan Sitong could have escaped but told those who urged him to flee the following: “No reform is ever accomplished without bloodshed. Thus far, we have never heard of anyone being sacrificed for the sake of reform in China. That is why the nation has failed to prosper so far. If anyone is to be sacrificed, please start with me.” His belief was that for the national reform to succeed and bring prosperity to the nation, blood must be shed, and sacrifices must be made. He embraced the position of the first martyr of the reform movement.
Kang Youwei’s younger brother Kang Guangren, one of the Six Gentlemen, commented on the reform’s failure: “My elder brother’s approach was too extensive (in scope), too ambitious and tried to take on too much, (yet it) had too few supporters and the measures were too drastic. Those who hated him, envied him, and those who sought to oust him and slander him could fill thoroughfares and alleys. Yet the emperor has no power, so how could the reform possibly succeed?”
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Both the Self-strengthening Movement and the Hundred Days’ Reform were orchestrated by Qing officials. Although the former lasted far longer than the latter, both ultimately failed. What are the similarities and differences in the causes of failure of the two movements? |
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The similarity that the two movements share is that both met resistance and opposition from the conservative faction. Although Empress Dowager Cixi and the stubborn reactionaries did not object to the Self-strengthening Movement outright, their actions - such as redirecting naval funds for other purposes and making it more difficult for new industries to be established - hindered the implementation of the Self-strengthening Movement. The Hundred Days’ Reform, meanwhile, failed solely due to the crackdown orchestrated by the Empress’s Faction led by Cixi. Furthermore, both movements aimed to preserve Qing rule, yet found the Qing bureaucracy too corrupt to be salvaged. For the differences, the Self-strengthening Movement was spearheaded by prominent Qing statesmen with power and prestige. Thus, even Cixi had no choice but to pay them lip service. However, by pursuing the superficial aspects of Western knowledge, the movement overlooked its more valuable offerings and gradually became unsustainable. The proponents of the Hundred Days’ Reform, in contrast, were of low office and lacked the power to carry the reform through. Moreover, as it focused on reforming the political system, it threatened the vested interests of many Manchurian bureaucrats and nobles, and their backlash ultimately doomed the reform. Despite being reform-minded, Emperor Guangxu was emperor in name only and wielded no real power. The Reformist Camp’s naivete in trusting Yuan Shikai with their plan - leading to his subsequent betrayal - was the final nail in the coffin. |
